From 790174c9f2cba9d7aed38cbb647c8517c05b8f78 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Ernest Guevarra Date: Wed, 22 Jan 2025 15:35:43 +0000 Subject: [PATCH] edit indicators chapter; fix #10 --- .github/workflows/netlify.yaml | 2 +- 02-sampling.qmd | 2 +- 03-indicators.qmd | 349 +++++++++++++-------------------- 09-references.qmd | 5 +- README.md | 2 +- references.bib | 207 ++++++++++++++++++- 6 files changed, 345 insertions(+), 222 deletions(-) diff --git a/.github/workflows/netlify.yaml b/.github/workflows/netlify.yaml index 67b3af4..3f2dd1a 100644 --- a/.github/workflows/netlify.yaml +++ b/.github/workflows/netlify.yaml @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -name: Test book render +name: test book render on: pull_request: diff --git a/02-sampling.qmd b/02-sampling.qmd index f1122e9..af8b6fe 100644 --- a/02-sampling.qmd +++ b/02-sampling.qmd @@ -205,7 +205,7 @@ List-based vs map-based sampling **Note:** In this example twenty-one (21) blocks have been selected. It can be difficult to achieve exactly the number of blocks that you need when using this type of sample. It is best to select more rather than fewer blocks than you need Here we would take our sample as $n = 10$ individuals from $m = 21$ blocks (overall $n = 210$). -### The second stage (within-community) sample {#sec-second-stage-sample} +### The second stage (within-community) sample {#sec-second-stage-within-community-sample} The second stage (within-community) sample uses a map-segment-sample approach: diff --git a/03-indicators.qmd b/03-indicators.qmd index 7c38636..7f5fe56 100644 --- a/03-indicators.qmd +++ b/03-indicators.qmd @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ -# Indicators {#indicators} +# Indicators {#sec-indicators} -## The RAM-OP indicator set +## The RAM-OP indicator set {#sec-ram-op-indicator-set} RAM-OP surveys collect and report on data for a broad range of indicators relevant to older people. @@ -27,42 +27,41 @@ Whenever possible, RAM-OP uses standard and validated indicators and question se Indicators are described below, showing the questionnaire components that are used to collect and record the data required, and flowcharts of the process used to derive indicators from the collected data. Standard symbols are used. For example: -```{r indicators01, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators01.png") +```{mermaid} +%%| label: fig-indicators01 +%%| fig-cap: Standard symbols used +%%| fig-alt: Standard symbols used +%%| fig-align: center +flowchart TD + A[**sum = a1 + a2**

*Assign a value or perform a calculation*] + B{**h1 = 0?**

*Make a decision Yes/No*} + + A --> B ``` A non-standard symbol is used to show **recode operations**. A recode operation shows changes that are made to data so that it can be used to derive indicators without having to show many decision nodes in the flowchart. They are also used to specify what should be done with missing or out-of-range values. For example: -```{r indicators02, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators02.png") -``` +![Example recode operation flowchart](figures/indicators02.png){#fig-indicators02 fig-alt="Example recode operations flowchart" fig-align="center"} -### Demography and situation +### Demography and situation {#sec-demography-situation} The demography and situation indicators are used to describe the survey sample and are derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire01, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire01.png") -``` +![Demography and situation questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire01.png){#fig-questionnaire01 fig-alt="Demography and situation questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} \newpage Each of the questions yields a separate indicator: -```{r indicators03, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators03.png") -``` +![Demography and situation indicators](figures/indicators03.png){#fig-indicators03 fig-alt="Demography and situation indicators" fig-align="center"} -### Food intake +### Food intake {#sec-food-intake} Food-intake indicators are derived from this questionnaire component. This data can be queried to yield a large number of useful indicators. \newpage -```{r questionnaire02, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire02.png") -``` - +![Food intake questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire02.png){#fig-questionnaire02 fig-alt="Food intake questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} \newpage @@ -74,43 +73,37 @@ There are three related sets of diet-related indicators: The indicator hierarchy is: -```{r indicators04, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators04.png") -``` +![Diet-relalted indicators hierarchy](figures/indicators04.png){#fig-indicators04 fig-alt="Diet-related indicators hierarchy" fig-align="center"} The data on the number of meals taken in the previous twenty-four hours forms a *meal frequency score*. Food intake data from each subject is combined into a *dietary diversity score*. The dietary diversity score is a crude measure of food security. The dietary diversity score ranges between zero (i.e. no food groups) and eleven (i.e. eleven food groups). Higher values of the dietary diversity sore are associated with better food security. -The meal frequency score and the dietary diversity score follow: +The meal frequency score and the dietary diversity score follow [@swindale_household_2006; @kennedy_guidelines_2010]: -* Swindale A, Bilinsky P, *Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for measurement of household food access: Indicator guide*.,Washington DC, Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA) Project, 2006 +> Swindale A, Bilinsky P, *Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for measurement of household food access: Indicator guide*.,Washington DC, Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA) Project, 2006 -* Kennedy G, Ballard T, Dop MC, *Guidelines for Measuring Household and Individual Dietary Diversity*, Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization, 2010 +> Kennedy G, Ballard T, Dop MC, *Guidelines for Measuring Household and Individual Dietary Diversity*, Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization, 2010 -The data on the types of food consumed in the previous twenty-four hours are analysed in order to determine the diet’s content of specific micronutrients that are important for older people. This also follows Swindale & Bilinsky (2006) and Kennedy et al (2010), and: +The data on the types of food consumed in the previous twenty-four hours are analysed in order to determine the diet’s content of specific micronutrients that are important for older people. This also follows @swindale_household_2006 and @kennedy_guidelines_2010, and @world_health_organization_management_2000: -* World Health Organisation, *The management of nutrition in major emergencies*, Geneva, WHO, 2000 +> World Health Organisation, *The management of nutrition in major emergencies*, Geneva, WHO, 2000 -### Meal frequency +### Meal frequency {#sec-meal-frequency} The meal frequency score indicator is the answer given to the first food intake question: -```{r indicators05, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators05.png") -``` +![First food intake question](figures/indicators05.png){#fig-indicators05 fig-alt="First food intake question" fig-align="center"} Meal frequency is a crude measure of food security. Higher values of meal frequency are associated with better food security. -### Food groups and dietary diversity +### Food groups and dietary diversity {#sec-diet-diversity} Questions relating to the consumption of individual food items / food types are combined to create food groups and the number of food groups consumed are counted to create a dietary diversity score: -```{r indicators06, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators06.png") -``` +![Workflow for creating food groups](figures/indicators06.png){#fig-indicators06 fig-alt="Workflow for creating food groups" fig-align="center"} The consumption of the eleven individual food groups and the dietary diversity score are reported separately. @@ -122,15 +115,11 @@ The dietary diversity score is a crude measure of food security. The dietary div Questions and combinations of questions relating to the consumption of individual food items and food types can be used to determine whether the reported diet is likely to be provide sufficient nutrients of various types: -```{r indicators07, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators07.png") -``` +![Workflow for creating nutrients uptake indicators](figures/indicators07.png){#fig-indicators07 fig-alt="Workflow for nutrients uptake indicators" fig-align="center"} Each indicator is formed using logical “or” operations (i.e. the indicator is true if **any** of the constituent foods are consumed). For example, the indicator for the consumption of iron rich foods: -```{r indicators08, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators08.png") -``` +![Recoding for iron rich foods](figures/indicators08.png){#fig-indicators08 fig-alt="Recoding for iron rich foods" fig-align="center"} requires the consumption of one or more of green leafy vegetables, organ meats, meat, or fish and shellfish. Consumption of **any** of these foods is sufficient to indicate that the survey subject consumes iron rich food. @@ -138,17 +127,13 @@ requires the consumption of one or more of green leafy vegetables, organ meats, Indicators of consumption of protein rich foods from animal sources, plant source, and any / all sources are calculated as: -```{r indicators09, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators09.png") -``` +![Recoding for protein-rich foods](figures/indicators09.png){#fig-indicators09 fig-alt="Recoding for protein-rich foods" fig-align="center"} #### Vitamin A rich foods Indicators of consumption of vitamin A rich foods from animal sources, plant source, and any / all sources are calculated as: -```{r indicators10, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators10.png") -``` +![Recoding for vitamin A-rich foods](figures/indicators10.png){#fig-indicators10 fig-alt="Recoding for vitamin A-rich foods" fig-align="center"} \newpage @@ -156,25 +141,19 @@ knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators10.png") An indicator of consumption of iron rich foods from any / all sources is calculated as: -```{r indicators11, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators11.png") -``` +![Recoding of iron-rich foods from any source](figures/indicators11.png){#fig-indicators11 fig-alt="Recoding of iron-rich foods from any source" fig-align="center"} #### Calcium rich foods An indicator of consumption of calcium rich foods from any / all sources is calculated as: -```{r indicators12, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators12.png") -``` +![Recoding of calcium-rich foods](figures/indicators12.png){#fig-indicators12 fig-alt="Recoding of caclcium-rich foods" fig-align="center"} #### Zinc rich foods An indicator of consumption of zinc rich foods from any / all sources is calculated as: -```{r indicators13, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators13.png") -``` +![Recoding of zinc-rich foods](figures/indicators13.png){#fig-indicators13 fig-alt="Recoding of zinc-rich foods" fig-align="center"} \newpage @@ -182,9 +161,7 @@ knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators13.png") Indicators of consumption of vitamin B rich foods from any / all sources are calculated as: -```{r indicators14, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators14.png") -``` +![Recoding of vitamin B-rich foods](figures/indicators14.png){#fig-indicators14 fig-alt="Recoding if vitamin B-rich foods" fig-align="center"} Note that the vitamin B complex indicator requires that at least one food from each of the B1, B2, B3, B6, and B12 rich food combinations is consumed. @@ -192,79 +169,67 @@ Note that the vitamin B complex indicator requires that at least one food from e An indicator of severe food insecurity (hunger) is derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire03, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire03.png") -``` +![Severe food insecurity questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire03.png){#fig-questionnaire03 fig-alt="Severe food insecurity questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} and is calculated as: -```{r indicators15, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators15.png") -``` +![Recoding of severe food indsecurity indicator](figures/indicators15.png){#fig-indicators15 fig-alt="Recoding of severe food insecurity indicator" fig-align="center"} \newpage -This indicator is the *Household Hunger Scale (HHS)* and is a simple, well-validated, and widely used indicator of severe food insecurity: +This indicator is the *Household Hunger Scale (HHS)* and is a simple, well-validated, and widely used indicator of severe food insecurity [@ballard_household_2011; @ruel_measuring_2014]: -* Ballard T, Coates J, Swindale A, Deitchler M, *Household Hunger Scale: Indicator Definition and Measurement Guide*, Washington DC, FANTA-2 Bridge, FHI 360, 2011 +> Ballard T, Coates J, Swindale A, Deitchler M, *Household Hunger Scale: Indicator Definition and Measurement Guide*, Washington DC, FANTA-2 Bridge, FHI 360, 2011 -* Ruel MT, Ballard TJ, Deitchler M, *Measuring and Tracking the Access Dimension of Food Security: Available Indicators and Recommendations for Future Investments*, Global Nutrition Report 2014: Technical Note 6, Washington DC, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2014 +> Ruel MT, Ballard TJ, Deitchler M, *Measuring and Tracking the Access Dimension of Food Security: Available Indicators and Recommendations for Future Investments*, Global Nutrition Report 2014: Technical Note 6, Washington DC, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2014 ### Disability Indicators of disability across six different domains are derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire04, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire04.png") -``` +![Disability questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire04.png){#fig-questionnaire04 fig-alt="Disability questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} \newpage -Individual disability indicators are reported for each domain (i.e. vision, hearing, mobility, remembering, self-care, and communication) of disability in the Washington Group’s short set of question designed to identify people with a disability in a census or survey format: - -* http://www.washingtongroup-disability.com - -* https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/washington_group/wg_documents.htm +Individual disability indicators are reported for each domain (i.e. vision, hearing, mobility, remembering, self-care, and communication) of disability in the Washington Group’s short set of question designed to identify people with a disability in a census or survey format [@washington_group_on_disability_statistics_washington_2022]. Overall disability prevalence indicators are also reported. Indicators of disability in each domain are calculated as: -```{r indicators16, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators16.png") -``` +![Recoding of disability indicators](figures/indicators16.png){#fig-indicators16 fig-alt="Recoding of disability indicators" fig-align="center"} Overall disability prevalence indicators are calculated as: -+----------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ -| `P0` = 1 | if no domain has `D1` = 1, else = 0 (no disability in any domain) | -+----------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ -| `P1` = 1 | if at least one domain has `D1` = 1, else = 0 | -+----------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ -| `P2` = 1 | if at least one domain has `D2` = 1, else = 0 | -+----------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ -| `P3` = 1 | if at least one domain has `D3` = 1, else = 0 | -+----------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ -| `PM` = 1 | if at more than one domain has `D1` = 1, else = 0 (M stands for “Multiple”) | -+----------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ ++----------+------------------------------------------------+ +| `P0` = 1 | if no domain has `D1` = 1, | +| | else = 0 (no disability in any domain) | ++----------+------------------------------------------------+ +| `P1` = 1 | if at least one domain has `D1` = 1, else = 0 | ++----------+------------------------------------------------+ +| `P2` = 1 | if at least one domain has `D2` = 1, else = 0 | ++----------+------------------------------------------------+ +| `P3` = 1 | if at least one domain has `D3` = 1, else = 0 | ++----------+------------------------------------------------+ +| `PM` = 1 | if at more than one domain has `D1` = 1, | +| | else = 0 (M stands for “Multiple”) | ++----------+------------------------------------------------+ ### Activities of daily living Indicators of how well the subject copes with activities of daily living are derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire05, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire05.png") -``` +![Activities of daily living questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire05.png){#fig-questionnaire05 fig-alt="Activities of daily living questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} Individual *independence* indicators are reported for each dimension (i.e. bathing, dressing, toilet, mobility, continence, and eating) of daily living activities. -A composite indicator of the degree of *independence* (i.e. how well the subject can cope with activities of daily living) is also reported. This indicator is the *Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living* (or the *Katz Index of ADL* for short) and is a simple, well-validated, and widely used indicator of how well the subject can cope with activities of daily living: +A composite indicator of the degree of *independence* (i.e. how well the subject can cope with activities of daily living) is also reported. This indicator is the *Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living* (or the *Katz Index of ADL* for short) and is a simple, well-validated, and widely used indicator of how well the subject can cope with activities of daily living [@katz_studies_1963; @katz_progress_1970; @katz_assessing_2015]. -* Katz S, Ford AB, Moskowitz RW, Jackson BA, Jaffe MW, *Studies of illness in the aged. The Index of ADL: A standardized measure of biological and psychosocial function*, JAMA, 185(12), 1963, pp. 914-9 +> Katz S, Ford AB, Moskowitz RW, Jackson BA, Jaffe MW, *Studies of illness in the aged. The Index of ADL: A standardized measure of biological and psychosocial function*, JAMA, 185(12), 1963, pp. 914-9 -* Katz S, Down TD, Cash HR, Grotz, RC, *Progress in the development of the index of ADL*, The Gerontologist, 10(1), 1970, pp. 20-30 +> Katz S, Down TD, Cash HR, Grotz, RC, *Progress in the development of the index of ADL*, The Gerontologist, 10(1), 1970, pp. 20-30 -* Katz S, *Assessing self-maintenance: Activities of daily living, mobility and instrumental activities of daily living*, JAGS, 31(12), 1983, pp. 721-726 +> Katz S, *Assessing self-maintenance: Activities of daily living, mobility and instrumental activities of daily living*, JAGS, 31(12), 1983, pp. 721-726 The Katz Index of ADL ranges between zero (complete dependence) and six (independence). @@ -272,21 +237,18 @@ The Katz Index of ADL ranges between zero (complete dependence) and six (indepen The seventh question of this module, which is not part of the Katz Index of ADL, is reported separately and indicates whether the subject has someone to help them with activities of daily living: -+:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------:+ -| **Activities of Daily Living** | -+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ -+----------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------+ -| a7 | Is someone taking care of you or helping you with| 1 = Yes; 2 = No | [__] | -| | everyday activities such as shopping, cooking, | | | -| | bathing and dressing? | | | -+----------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------+ +**Activities of Daily Living** + ++----+--------------------------------------------------+----------+----------+ +| a7 | Is someone taking care of you or helping you with| 1 = Yes; | [__] | +| | everyday activities such as shopping, cooking, | 2 = No | | +| | bathing and dressing? | | | ++----+--------------------------------------------------+----------+----------+ It is not possible to know if the help available completely meets a subject's needs, but we can identify the proportion of subjects needing help with one or more activities of daily living who also report not having someone to help them: -```{r indicators17, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators17.png") -``` +![Conceptual representation of indicator on unmet need](figures/indicators17.png){#fig-indicators17 fig-alt="Conceptual representation of indicator on unmet need" fig-align="center"} This is an indicator of unmet need. @@ -294,28 +256,23 @@ This is an indicator of unmet need. Indicators of how well the subject can cope with activities of daily living and probable unmet need are calculated as: -```{r indicators18, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators18.png") -``` +![Recode for unmet need indicator](figures/indicators18.png){#fig-indicators18 fig-alt="Recode for unmet need indicator" fig-align="center"} ### Mental health and well-being + Indicators of mental health and well being are derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire06, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire06.png") -``` +![Mental health and well-being questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire06.png){#fig-quesetionnaire06 fig-alt="Mental health and well-being questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} -A score is calculated. This is the *Kessler K6 Psychological Distress Scale*. The score ranges from zero (indicating no psychological distress) to twenty-four (indicating severe psychological distress). A score of thirteen or more indicates serious psychological distress. The Kessler K6 Psychological Distress Scale is a widely recommended, widely used, accurate, reliable, and simple measure of psychological distress: +A score is calculated. This is the *Kessler K6 Psychological Distress Scale*. The score ranges from zero (indicating no psychological distress) to twenty-four (indicating severe psychological distress). A score of thirteen or more indicates serious psychological distress. The Kessler K6 Psychological Distress Scale is a widely recommended, widely used, accurate, reliable, and simple measure of psychological distress [@kessler_short_2002; @kessler_screening_2003]. -* Kessler RC, Andrews G, Colpe LJ, Hiripi E, Mroczek, DK, Normand SLT, et al, “Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress”, *Psychological Medicine*, 32(6), 2002, pp. 959–976 +> Kessler RC, Andrews G, Colpe LJ, Hiripi E, Mroczek, DK, Normand SLT, et al, “Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress”, *Psychological Medicine*, 32(6), 2002, pp. 959–976 -* Kessler RC, Barker PR, Colpe LJ, Epstein JF, Gfroerer JC, Hiripi E, “Screening for Serious Mental Illness in the General Population”, *Archives of General Psychiatry*, 60(2), 2003, pp. 184-189 +> Kessler RC, Barker PR, Colpe LJ, Epstein JF, Gfroerer JC, Hiripi E, “Screening for Serious Mental Illness in the General Population”, *Archives of General Psychiatry*, 60(2), 2003, pp. 184-189 Indicators of mental health and well-being are calculated as: -```{r indicators19, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators19.png") -``` +![Recode of mental health and well-being indicators](figures/indicators19.png){#fig-indicators19 fig-alt="Recode of mental health and well-being indicators" fig-align="center"} \newpage @@ -323,21 +280,17 @@ knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators19.png") An indicator of probable dementia is derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire07, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire07.png") -``` +![Dementia questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire07.png){#fig-questionnaire07 fig-alt="Dementia questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} \newpage The indicator of *probable* dementia is calculated as: -```{r indicators20, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators20.png") -``` +![Recode of probably dementia indicator](figures/indicators20.png){#fig-indicators20 fig-alt="Recode of probably dementia indicator" fig-align="center"} -This indicator is derived from the Community Screening Instrument for Dementia (CSID) developed by the 10/66 Dementia Research Group. This is a simple, validated, and widely used indicator of probable dementia: +This indicator is derived from the Community Screening Instrument for Dementia (CSID) developed by the 10/66 Dementia Research Group. This is a simple, validated, and widely used indicator of probable dementia [@prince_brief_2010]. -* Prince M, et al, “A brief dementia screener suitable for use by non-specialists in resource poor settings - The cross-cultural derivation and validation of the brief Community Screening Instrument for Dementia”, *International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry*, 26(9), 2011, pp. 899–907 +> Prince M, et al, “A brief dementia screener suitable for use by non-specialists in resource poor settings - The cross-cultural derivation and validation of the brief Community Screening Instrument for Dementia”, *International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry*, 26(9), 2011, pp. 899–907 \newpage @@ -345,89 +298,73 @@ This indicator is derived from the Community Screening Instrument for Dementia ( Indicators of health and health-seeking behaviour for chronic and acute conditions are derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire08, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire08.png") -``` +![Health and health-seeking behaviour questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire08.png){#fig-questionnaire08 fig-alt="Health and health-seeking behaviour questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} \newpage Indicators of health and health-seeking behaviour for chronic conditions are calculated as: -```{r indicators21, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators21.png") -``` +![Recode of health and health-seeking behaviour indicators for chronic conditions](figures/indicators21.png){#fig-indicators21 fig-alt="Recode of health and health-seeking behaviour indicators for chronic conditions" fig-align="center"} \newpage Indicators of health and health-seeking behaviour for acute conditions are calculated as: -```{r indicators22, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators22.png") -``` +![Recode of health and health-seeking behaviour indicators for acute conditions](figures/indicators22.png){#fig-indicators22 fig-alt="Recode of health and health-seeking behaviour indicators for acute conditions" fig-align="center"} -### Sources of income +### Sources of income {#sec-sources-income} Indicators related to sources of income are derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire09, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire09.png") -``` +![Sources of income questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire09.png){#fig-questionnaire09 fig-alt="Sources of income questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} and are calculated as: -```{r indicators23, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators23.png") -``` +![Recode of sources of income indicators](figures/indicators23.png){#fig-indicators23 fig-alt="Recode of sources of income indicators" fig-align="center"} The grouped income sources (i.e. `m2a`, `m2b`, etc.) and individual income sources may vary between settings. The questionnaire component shown above has proved suitable for use in Ethiopia, South Sudan, and Tanzania. \newpage -### Water, sanitation, and hygiene +### Water, sanitation, and hygiene {#sec-wash} + Indicators relating to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire10, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire10.png") -``` +![Water, sanitation, and hygiene questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire10.png){#fig-questionnaire10 fig-alt="Water, sanitation, and hygiene questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} \newpage -Indicators are calculated following: +Indicators are calculated following @world_health_organization_core_2006. -* WHO / UNICEF, *Core Questions on Drinking-water and Sanitation for Household Surveys*, Geneva, WHO / UNICEF, 2006 +> WHO / UNICEF, *Core Questions on Drinking-water and Sanitation for Household Surveys*, Geneva, WHO / UNICEF, 2006 Indicators relating to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are calculated as: -```{r indicators24, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators24.png") -``` +![Recode of water, sanitation, and hygiene indicators](figures/indicators24.png){#fig-indicators24 fig-alt="Recode of water, sanitation, and hygiene indicators" fig-align="center"} \newpage -### Anthropometry and screening coverage +### Anthropometry and screening coverage {#sec-anthro} Indicators relating to anthropometry and screening coverage are derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire11, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire11.png") -``` +![Anthropometry and screening questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire11.png){#fig-questionnaire11 fig-alt="Anthropometry and screening questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} + And are calculated as: -```{r indicators25, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators25.png") -``` +![Recode of anthropometry and screening indicators](figures/indicators25.png){#fig-indicators25 fig-alt="Recode of anthropometry and screening indicators" fig-align="center"} Raw MUAC data (i.e. not MUAC class) is collected, entered, and analysed. This requires that an adult MUAC tape (i.e. capable of measuring MUAC to 450 mm) is used. The presence of bilateral oedema is assessed by pressing with your thumbs **both** feet of the older person for three seconds and checking whether this creates a lasting depression or “pit” on both feet. Bilateral pitting oedema in older people may not be “nutritional” oedema (as is almost always the case with children). Older people with bilateral pitting oedema should be advised to consult a doctor. -The prevalence of GAM, MAM, and SAM are estimated using a PROBIT estimator. This type of estimator provides better precision than a classic estimator at small sample sizes: +The prevalence of GAM, MAM, and SAM are estimated using a PROBIT estimator. This type of estimator provides better precision than a classic estimator at small sample sizes [@world_health_organization_physical_1995; @dale_assessment_2012; @blanton_probit_2013]. -* World Health Organisation, *Physical Status: The use and interpretation of anthropometry. Report of a WHO expert committee*, WHO Technical Report Series 854, WHO, Geneva, 1995 +> World Health Organisation, *Physical Status: The use and interpretation of anthropometry. Report of a WHO expert committee*, WHO Technical Report Series 854, WHO, Geneva, 1995 -* Dale NM, Myatt M, Prudhon C, Briend, A, “Assessment of the PROBIT approach for estimating the prevalence of global, moderate and severe acute malnutrition from population surveys”, *Public Health Nutrition*, 1–6. doi:10.1017/S1368980012003345, 2012 +> Dale NM, Myatt M, Prudhon C, Briend, A, “Assessment of the PROBIT approach for estimating the prevalence of global, moderate and severe acute malnutrition from population surveys”, *Public Health Nutrition*, 1–6. doi:10.1017/S1368980012003345, 2012 -* Blanton CJ, Bilukha, OO, “The PROBIT approach in estimating the prevalence of wasting: revisiting bias and precision”, *Emerging Themes in Epidemiology*, 10(1), 2013, p. 8 +> Blanton CJ, Bilukha, OO, “The PROBIT approach in estimating the prevalence of wasting: revisiting bias and precision”, *Emerging Themes in Epidemiology*, 10(1), 2013, p. 8 The PROBIT estimator is described in Box 1. @@ -447,7 +384,8 @@ These are standard case definitions for acute malnutrition in adults and recomme \newpage -```{block2, type = "rmdnote"} +::: {.callout-note title="Using PROBIT"} + An estimate of GAM prevalence can be made using a classic estimator: $$\text{prevalence} = \frac{\text{number of respondents with MUAC < 210 mm}}{\text{total number of respondents}}$$ @@ -460,7 +398,7 @@ Both the classic and the PROBIT methods can be thought of as estimating area:   -![](figures/indicators26.png) +![Area under the curve](figures/indicators26.png){#fig-auc fig-alt="Area under the curve" fig-align="center"}   @@ -475,91 +413,87 @@ The PROBIT method assumes that MUAC is a normally distributed variable. If this The prevalence of SAM is estimated in a similar way to GAM. The prevalence of MAM is estimated as the difference between the GAM and SAM prevalence estimates: $$\widehat{MAM prevalence} = \widehat{GAM prevalence} - \widehat{SAM prevalence}$$ -``` + +::: \newpage -### Visual impairment +### Visual impairment {#sec-visual-impairment} An indicator of visual impairment is derived from this questionnaire component: -```{r questionnaire12, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/questionnaire12.png") -``` +![Visual impairment questionnaire module](figures/questionnaire12.png){#fig-quesetionnaire12 fig-alt="Visual impairment questionnaire module" fig-align="center"} \newpage And is calculated as: -```{r indicators27, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators27.png") -``` +![Recode of visual impairment indicator](figures/indicators27.png){#fig-indicators27 fig-alt="Recode of visual impairment indicator" fig-align="center"} -The “illiterate E” or “tumbling E” (the preferred term) is a validated and widely used method for measuring visual acuity: +The *“illiterate E”* or *“tumbling E”* (the preferred term) is a validated and widely used method for measuring visual acuity [@taylor_applying_1978; @kaiser_prospective_2009] -* Taylor HR, “Applying new design principles to the construction of an illiterate E chart”, *American Journal of Optometry & Physiological Optics*, 55:348, 1978 +> Taylor HR, “Applying new design principles to the construction of an illiterate E chart”, *American Journal of Optometry & Physiological Optics*, 55:348, 1978 -* Kaiser PK, “Prospective Evaluation of Visual Acuity Assessment: A Comparison of Snellen Versus ETDRS Charts in Clinical Practice (An AOS Thesis)”, *Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society*, 107: 311–324, 2009 +> Kaiser PK, “Prospective Evaluation of Visual Acuity Assessment: A Comparison of Snellen Versus ETDRS Charts in Clinical Practice (An AOS Thesis)”, *Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society*, 107: 311–324, 2009 \newpage The size of the “E” used: -```{r indicators28, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators28.png") -``` +![The tumbling E](figures/indicators28.png){#fig-indicators28 fig-alt="The tumbling E" fig-align="center"} as well as the distance used for the test (two metres) and the indicator calculation apply the WHO case definition of visual impairment (i.e. visual acuity < 6 / 18). -The tumbling E card should be laminated (i.e. plastic coated and have a two metre cord attached which helps to ensure that the visual acuity test is performed at the correct distance (See Figure \@ref(fig:indicators29)). +The tumbling E card should be laminated (i.e. plastic coated and have a two metre cord attached which helps to ensure that the visual acuity test is performed at the correct distance (see @fig-indicators29)). After demonstrating to the respondent what the test is about (i.e. the subject should indicate which direction the branches of the 'E' are pointing), the test is administered at a distance of two meters, turning the card in four different directions, and asking the person to indicate which direction the branches of the “E” is pointing. If the subject wears glasses, they are allowed to use them during the test if they want to. -**Note** : If the person is unable to correctly answer at least three times out of four, they have a visual impairment. A simple visual acuity test such as the 'tumbling E' test also does not indicate anything about an underlying disease such as glaucoma or the need for reading spectacles (presbyopia). These conditions are common in people aged 60 years or older. Subjects failing the visual acuity test should be counselled to visit an ophthalmologist for a detailed eye examination. +::: {.callout-note} + +If the person is unable to correctly answer at least three times out of four, they have a visual impairment. A simple visual acuity test such as the 'tumbling E' test also does not indicate anything about an underlying disease such as glaucoma or the need for reading spectacles (presbyopia). These conditions are common in people aged 60 years or older. Subjects failing the visual acuity test should be counselled to visit an ophthalmologist for a detailed eye examination. + +::: \newpage -```{r indicators29, echo = FALSE, fig.cap = "Equipment used to measure visual acuity", fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators29.png") -``` +![Equipment used to measure visual acuity](figures/indicators29.png){#fig-indicators29 fig-alt="Equipment used to measure visual acuity" fig-align="center"} + \newpage -### Miscellaneous indicators +### Miscellaneous indicators {#sec-misc-indicators} Data for a small group of miscellaneous indicators are also collected and reported. These are derived from these questions: **Hunger – Ration - Relief** -+----------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------+ -| f6 | Are you or anyone in your household receiving a | 1 = Yes; 2 = No | [__] | -| | food ration on a regular basis? | | | -+----------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------+ -| f7 | Have you or another member of your household | 1 = Yes; 2 = No | [__] | -| | received non-food relief items such as soap, | | | -| | bucket, water container, bedding, mosquito net, | | | -| | clothes, or plastic sheet in the previous four | | | -| | weeks? | | | -+----------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------+ ++-----+-------------------------------------------------+----------+-------+ +| f6 | Are you or anyone in your household receiving a | 1 = Yes; | [__] | +| | food ration on a regular basis? | 2 = No | | ++-----+-------------------------------------------------+----------+-------+ +| f7 | Have you or another member of your household | 1 = Yes | [__] | +| | received non-food relief items such as soap, | 2 = No | | +| | bucket, water container, bedding, mosquito net, | | | +| | clothes, or plastic sheet in the previous four | | | +| | weeks? | | | ++----------+--------------------------------------------+----------+-------+   **Activities of Daily Living** -+----------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------+ -| a8 | Do you have problems chewing food? | 1 = Yes; 2 = No | [__] | -+----------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------+ ++-----+------------------------------------+-----------------+-------------+ +| a8 | Do you have problems chewing food? | 1 = Yes; 2 = No | [__] | ++-----+------------------------------------+-----------------+-------------+ \newpage and are calculated as: -```{r indicators30, echo = FALSE, fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/indicators30.png") -``` +![Recode for miscellaneous indicators](figures/indicators30.png){#fig-indicators30 fig-alt="Recode for miscellaneous indicators" fig-align="center"} -## A note on data management and data analysis +## A note on data management and data analysis {#sec-data-management-analysis} -This section has described how RAM-OP data is used to create a broad set of indicators. If you do not want to use the standard RAM-OP software to do this then you can use this information to create data entry systems and data management scripts for your favoured database or statistical analysis software. See the sections on [**RAM-OP datasets**](#datasets) and [**RAM-OP questionnaire**](#questionnaire) for more compact information on variable names and codes that you may find helpful. +This section has described how RAM-OP data is used to create a broad set of indicators. If you do not want to use the standard RAM-OP software to do this then you can use this information to create data entry systems and data management scripts for your favoured database or statistical analysis software. See the sections on [**RAM-OP datasets**](#sec-datasets) and [**RAM-OP questionnaire**](#sec-questionnaire) for more compact information on variable names and codes that you may find helpful. It is important to note that data analysis procedures need to account for the sample design. All major statistical analysis software can do this (details vary). There are two things to note: @@ -581,11 +515,8 @@ The principal advantages of using a bootstrap estimator are: * The method is *non-parametric* and uses empirical rather than theoretical distributions. There are no assumptions of things like normality to worry about. * The method allows estimation of the sampling distribution of almost any statistic using only simple computational methods. -The standard RAM-OP data analysis software is described in the section [**Standard RAM-OP software**](#software). +The standard RAM-OP data analysis software is described in the section [**Standard RAM-OP software**](#sec-software). \newpage -```{r indicators31, echo = FALSE, fig.cap = "The blocked weighted bootstrap used by the standard RAM-OP software", fig.align = "center", fig.pos = "H", fig.retina = 1} -knitr::include_graphics("figures/bbw.png") -``` - +![The blocked weighted bootstrap used by the standard RAM-OP software](figures/bbw.png){#fig-indicators31 fig-alt="The blocked weighted bootstrap used by the standard RAM-OP software" fig-align="center"} diff --git a/09-references.qmd b/09-references.qmd index 949fcca..a743eed 100644 --- a/09-references.qmd +++ b/09-references.qmd @@ -1 +1,4 @@ -# References \ No newline at end of file +# References {#sec-references} + +::: {#refs} +::: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index da7d46c..9c64e0b 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -# Rapid Assessment Method for Older People (RAM-OP): The Manual +# Rapid Assessment Method for Older People (RAM-OP): The Manual [HelpAge International](http://www.helpage.org), [VALID International](http://www.validinternational.org), and [Brixton Health](http://www.brixtonhealth.com), with financial assistance from the [Humanitarian Innovation Fund (HIF)](http://www.elrha.org/hif/home/), have developed a **Rapid Assessment Method for Older People (RAM-OP)** that provides accurate and reliable estimates of the needs of older people. The method uses simple procedures, in a short time frame (i.e. about two weeks including training, data collection, data entry, and data analysis), and at considerably lower cost than other methods. The **RAM-OP** method is based on the following principles: diff --git a/references.bib b/references.bib index f52f3d2..f10b9c4 100644 --- a/references.bib +++ b/references.bib @@ -1,10 +1,199 @@ -@Book{xie2015, - title = {Dynamic Documents with {R} and knitr}, - author = {Yihui Xie}, - publisher = {Chapman and Hall/CRC}, - address = {Boca Raton, Florida}, - year = {2015}, - edition = {2nd}, - note = {ISBN 978-1498716963}, - url = {http://yihui.name/knitr/}, + +@book{swindale_household_2006, + location = {Washington, {DC}}, + title = {Household Dietary Diversity Score ({HDDS}) for measurement of household food access: Indicator guide (v.2)}, + publisher = {{FHI} 360/{FANTA}}, + author = {Swindale, Anne and Bilinsky, Paula}, + date = {2006-09}, +} + +@book{kennedy_guidelines_2010, + location = {Rome}, + title = {Guidelines for Measuring Household and Individual Dietary Diversity}, + publisher = {{FAO}}, + author = {Kennedy, Gina and Ballard, Terri and Dop, {MarieClaude}}, + date = {2010}, +} + +@book{world_health_organization_management_2000, + location = {Geneva}, + title = {The management of nutrition in major emergencies}, + publisher = {World Health Organization}, + author = {{World Health Organization}}, + date = {2000}, +} + +@book{ballard_household_2011, + location = {Washington, {DC}}, + title = {Household Hunger Scale: Indicator Definition and Measurement Guide}, + publisher = {{FHI} 360/{FANTA}}, + author = {Ballard, Terri and Coates, Jennifer and Swindale, Anne and Deitchler, Megan}, + date = {2011-08}, +} + +@incollection{ruel_measuring_2014, + location = {Washington, {DC}}, + title = {Measuring and Tracking the Access Dimension of Food Security: Available Indicators and Recommendations for Future Investments Technical Note 6}, + booktitle = {Global Nutrition Report 2014}, + publisher = {International Food Policy Research Institute}, + author = {Ruel, Marie and Ballard, Terri and Deitchler, Megan}, + date = {2014}, +} + +@misc{washington_group_on_disability_statistics_washington_2022, + title = {The Washington Group Short Set on Functioning ({WG}-{SS})}, + url = {https://www.washingtongroup-disability.com/fileadmin/uploads/wg/Washington_Group_Questionnaire__1_-_WG_Short_Set_on_Functioning__October_2022_.pdf}, + author = {{Washington Group on Disability Statistics}}, + date = {2022-10-11}, +} + +@article{katz_studies_1963, + title = {Studies of Illness in the Aged - the Index of Adl - a Standardized Measure of Biological and Psychosocial Function}, + volume = {185}, + url = {http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1963.03060120024016}, + doi = {10.1001/jama.1963.03060120024016}, + pages = {914 -- 919}, + number = {12}, + journaltitle = {{JAMA}: The Journal of the American Medical Association}, + author = {Katz, S and {AB}, {FORD}, and {MOSKOWITZ}, R W and {JACKSON}, B A and {JAFFE}, M W}, + date = {1963}, + pmid = {14044222}, +} + +@article{katz_progress_1970, + title = {Progress in Development of the Index of {ADL}}, + volume = {10}, + issn = {0016-9013}, + url = {https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article-abstract/10/1\_Part\_1/20/530064}, + doi = {10.1093/geront/10.1_part_1.20}, + abstract = {The Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living ({ADL}), now in frequent use in rehabilitation settings, has application for prevention of disability and maintenance of rehabilitation gains in the aging person in all settings. Since the Index is sensitive to changes in meaningful self-care functions, uses well-defined criteria, and can be broadly taught to non-professionals, it has considerable practical value as a longitudinal measure of change and predictor of adaptive capacity in terms of community residences and congregate living facilities.}, + pages = {20 -- 30}, + number = {1}, + journaltitle = {The Gerontologist}, + author = {Katz, Sidney and Downs, Thomas D and Cash, Helen R and Grotz, Robert C}, + date = {1970-03}, +} + +@article{katz_assessing_2015, + title = {Assessing Self-maintenance: Activities of Daily Living, Mobility, and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living}, + volume = {31}, + url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1983.tb03391.x}, + doi = {10.1111/j.1532-5415.1983.tb03391.x}, + pages = {721 -- 727}, + number = {12}, + journaltitle = {Journal of the American Geriatrics Society}, + author = {Katz, Sidney}, + date = {2015-04}, +} + +@article{kessler_short_2002, + title = {Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress}, + volume = {32}, + url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/article/short-screening-scales-to-monitor-population-prevalences-and-trends-in-nonspecific-psychological-distress/F141675CCD0E08C0FB98E01C006B4E0D}, + doi = {10.1017/s0033291702006074}, + abstract = {Welcome to Cambridge Core}, + pages = {959 -- 976}, + number = {6}, + journaltitle = {Psychological medicine}, + author = {Kessler, R C and Andrews, G and Colpe, L J and Hiripi, E and Mroczek, D K and {NORMAND}, S L T and Walters, E E and Zaslavsky, A M}, + date = {2002-08}, + pmid = {12214795}, +} + +@article{kessler_screening_2003, + title = {Screening for Serious Mental Illness in the General Population}, + volume = {60}, + issn = {0003-990X}, + doi = {10.1001/archpsyc.60.2.184}, + abstract = {Background Public Law 102-321 established a block grant for adults with "serious mental illness" ({SMI}) and required the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration ({SAMHSA}) to develop a method to estimate the prevalence of {SMI}.Methods Three {SMI} screening scales were developed for possible use in the {SAMHSA} National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: the Composite International Diagnostic Interview Short-Form ({CIDI}-{SF}) scale, the K10/K6 nonspecific distress scales, and the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule ({WHO}-{DAS}). An enriched convenience sample of 155 respondents was administered all screening scales followed by the 12-month Structured Clinical Interview for {DSM}-{IV} and the Global Assessment of Functioning ({GAF}). We defined {SMI} as any 12-month {DSM}-{IV} disorder, other than a substance use disorder, with a {GAF} score of less than 60.Results All screening scales were significantly related to {SMI}. However, neither the {CIDI}-{SF} nor the {WHO}-{DAS} improved prediction significantly over the K10 or K6 scales. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of {SMI} was 0.854 for K10 and 0.865 for K6. The most efficient screening scale, K6, had a sensitivity ({SE}) of 0.36 (0.08) and a specificity of 0.96 (0.02) in predicting {SMI}.Conclusions The brevity and accuracy of the K6 and K10 scales make them attractive screens for {SMI}. Routine inclusion of either scale in clinical studies would create an important, and heretofore missing, crosswalk between community and clinical epidemiology.}, + pages = {184--189}, + number = {2}, + journaltitle = {Archives of General Psychiatry}, + author = {Kessler, Ronald C. and Barker, Peggy R. and Colpe, Lisa J. and Epstein, Joan F. and Gfroerer, Joseph C. and Hiripi, Eva and Howes, Mary J. and Normand, Sharon-Lise T. and Manderscheid, Ronald W. and Walters, Ellen E. and Zaslavsky, Alan M.}, + date = {2003}, + pmid = {12578436}, +} + +@article{prince_brief_2010, + title = {A brief dementia screener suitable for use by non-specialists in resource poor settings-the cross-cultural derivation and validation of the brief Community Screening Instrument for Dementia}, + volume = {26}, + url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/gps.2622}, + doi = {10.1002/gps.2622}, + abstract = {Brief screening tools for dementia for use by non‐specialists in primary care have yet to be validated in non‐western settings where cultural factors and limited education may complicate the task. We aimed...}, + pages = {899 -- 907}, + number = {9}, + journaltitle = {International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry}, + author = {Prince, M and Acosta, D and Ferri, C P and Guerra, M and Huang, Y and Jacob, K S and Rodriguez, J J Llibre and Salas, A and Sosa, A L and Williams, J D and Hall, K S and Group, the 10/66 Dementia}, + date = {2010-12}, +} + +@book{world_health_organization_core_2006, + location = {Geneva}, + title = {Core Questions on Drinking-water and Sanitation for Household Surveys}, + publisher = {World Health Organization}, + author = {{World Health Organization}}, + date = {2006-01-02}, +} + +@book{world_health_organization_physical_1995, + location = {Geneva}, + title = {Physical Status: The use and interpretation of anthropometry. Report of a {WHO} expert committee}, + series = {{WHO} technical report series}, + number = {854}, + publisher = {World Health Organization}, + author = {{World Health Organization}}, + date = {1995-02-28}, +} + +@article{dale_assessment_2012, + title = {Assessment of the {PROBIT} approach for estimating the prevalence of global, moderate and severe acute malnutrition from population surveys}, + volume = {16}, + issn = {1368-9800}, + url = {http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract\_S1368980012003345}, + doi = {10.1017/s1368980012003345}, + pages = {858 -- 863}, + number = {5}, + journaltitle = {Public Health Nutrition}, + author = {Dale, Nancy M and Myatt, Mark and Prudhon, Claudine and Briend, André}, + date = {2012-07}, +} + +@article{blanton_probit_2013, + title = {The {PROBIT} approach in estimating the prevalence of wasting: revisiting bias and precision.}, + volume = {10}, + url = {http://www.ete-online.com/content/10/1/8}, + doi = {10.1186/1742-7622-10-8}, + abstract = {The {PROBIT} methodology was presented in the 1995 World Health Organization Technical Report on Anthropometry as an alternative to the standard prevalence based method of measuring malnutrition in children. Theoretically the {PROBIT} method will always give a smaller standard error than the standard prevalence method in measuring malnutrition. A recent article by Dale et al. assessed the {PROBIT} method for measuring global acute malnutrition measure and found that the method was biased and the precision was superior only for sample sizes less than 150 when compared to the standard method. In a manner similar to Dale, our study further investigated the bias and precision of the {PROBIT} method for different sample sizes using simulated populations. The {PROBIT} method showed bias for each of the ten simulated populations, but the direction and magnitude of the average bias was changed depending on the simulated population. For a given simulated population, the average bias was relatively constant for all sample sizes drawn. The 95\% half-width confidence interval was lower for the {PROBIT} method than the standard prevalence method regardless of the sample size or simulated population. The absolute difference in the confidence limits showed the most gains for the {PROBIT} method for the smaller samples sizes, but the ratio of confidence intervals was relatively constant across all sample sizes. The {PROBIT} method will provide gains in precision regardless of the sample size, but the method may be biased. The direction and magnitude of the bias depends on the population it is drawn from.}, + pages = {8 -- 8}, + number = {1}, + journaltitle = {Emerging themes in epidemiology}, + author = {Blanton, Curtis J and Bilukha, Oleg O}, + date = {2013-01}, + pmid = {23981669}, + pmcid = {PMC3846578}, +} + +@article{taylor_applying_1978, + title = {Applying New Design Principles to the Construction of an Illiterate E Chart}, + volume = {55}, + issn = {1040-5488}, + doi = {10.1097/00006324-197805000-00008}, + abstract = {Abstract New design principles have been applied to the construction of an illiterate E chart. A chart can thus be produced in which the only variable in the visual acuity task for letters of diferent size is the letter size itself. A simple method for using this chart in field studies is described.}, + pages = {348--351}, + number = {5}, + journaltitle = {Optometry and Vision Science}, + author = {{TAYLOR}, {HUGH} R.}, + date = {1978}, + pmid = {696798}, +} + +@article{kaiser_prospective_2009, + title = {Prospective evaluation of visual acuity assessment: a comparison of snellen versus {ETDRS} charts in clinical practice (An {AOS} Thesis).}, + volume = {107}, + pages = {311--24}, + journaltitle = {Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society}, + author = {Kaiser, Peter K}, + date = {2009}, + pmid = {20126505}, + pmcid = {PMC2814576}, }