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<!DOCTYPE HTML>
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<title>Chariots For Apollo, ch1-6</title>
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<BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF">
<p>
<h2>Priming the Pipeline</h2>
<p>
"You are hereby directed . . . to accelerate the super booster
program for which your agency recently was given technical and
management responsibility," Eisenhower wrote Glennan in January
1960. This action ensured the transfer of the von Braun group from the
Army Ballistic Missile Agency to NASA,<a href = "#source31">31</a>
giving Glennan the launch vehicle development and management capability
that he wanted.<p>
Eisenhower's letter to Glennan was the first indication that the
administration might approve something beyond Mercury. At least, Glennan
interpreted it that way and told Silverstein, Director of NASA's Office
of Space Flight Programs, to encourage advanced design teams at each
field center and in the aerospace industry. Plans soon came in from both
of those sources. In February 1960, von Braun's team distributed its
latest study, "A Lunar Exploration Program Based upon
Saturn-Boosted Systems."<a href = "#source32">32</a> A month
earlier, J. R. Clark of Vought Astronautics, the Dallas, Texas, division
of Chance Vought Aircraft, Inc., had sent Silverstein a brochure,
"Manned Modular Multi-Purpose Space Vehicle," the work,
primarily, of Thomas E. Dolan. The booklet outlined a unified,
systematic approach to a national space exploration program leading
toward a manned lunar landing mission.<a href = "#source33">33</a><p>
In early 1960, with Mercury still unproved, chances of winning
administration approval to move either of these proposals (or any others
that surfaced) into the hardware development stage were small. On the
other hand, no one was told to stop planning a payload that might fit
atop the newly approved superbooster. In fact, on 15 February 1960,
Silverstein told Gilruth to "work out a presentation similar to
Vought using [the] <cite>modular concept</cite>," which simply
meant designing separate pieces of the spacecraft for specific functions
at different phases of a mission. Gilruth gave this task to Piland's
advanced design group, a somewhat more concrete assignment than that of
the previous November.<a href = "#source34">34</a><p>
Piland's team pulled together some guidelines and began presenting them
to all the NASA centers. Piland, Faget, Stanley White, and Robert
Chilton spoke, answered questions, and distributed copies of their
papers on the aspects of lunar mission planning, leaving the final
summary to Gilruth's Associate Director for Development, Charles J.
Donlan. Donlan outlined the problems that could be foreseen and
solicited "suggestions and proposals as to how best this effort can
be carried out. . . . We would hope in the immediate future to obtain
your views as to the problems each Center may concentrate on so that the
whole NASA effort can be integrated as soon as possible."<p>
Donlan asked specialists at the NASA centers to study such critical
areas as flight duration, optimum launch times, propulsion requirements,
trajectory analyses, and the effects of the moon's gravity on lunar
orbits. He also cited the need for configuration studies of the lunar
landing stage - "a one- or two-component lunar vehicle."<a
href = "#source35">35</a> While these briefing sessions were going on,
Langley sponsored a conference on space rendezvous in May 1960.
Participants from all of NASA's organizations reviewed rendezvous
studies under way and discussed likely avenues for further research.
Although rendezvous would be invaluable for future manned space
programs, until NASA secured funds for a rendezvous flight-test program,
the centers would be limited to their own ground-based experiments.
Langley was already engaged in studies.<a href = "#source36">36</a> John
C. Houbolt, Assistant Chief of the Dynamic Loads Division, had formed a
small group to study "soft rendezvous" - or how two vehicles
could come together at the high velocities required for space travel
without crashing into each other.<a href = "#source37">37</a><p>
Toward mid-1960, committees and groups within NASA had done as much
preliminary internal work as was profitable; John Disher and George Low
persuaded Glennan that it was time to sponsor a NASA-Industry Program
Plans Conference in late July to tell of NASA's tentative plans. At one
of the last briefings for this meeting, on 9 July, the Administrator
approved the awarding of three feasibility contracts for advanced manned
space flight studies.<a href = "#source38">38</a><p>
Silverstein, one of those leading the charge toward more far-ranging
flights than Mercury, had been looking for a suitable name for a payload
for the Saturn rockets. None suggested by his associates seemed
appropriate. One day, while consulting a book on mythology, Silverstein
found what he wanted. He later said, "I thought the image of the
god Apollo riding his chariot across the sun gave the best
representation of the grand scale of the proposed program."
Occasionally he asked his Headquarters colleagues for their opinions.
When no one objected, the chariot driver Apollo (according to ancient
Greek myths, the god of music, prophecy, medicine, light, and progress)
became the name of the proposed circumlunar spaceships. At the opening
of the conference on 28 July 1960, Dryden announced that "the next
spacecraft beyond Mercury will be called Apollo."<a href =
"#source39">39</a><p>
On 28 and 29 July 1960, 1,300 representatives from government, the
aerospace industry, and the institutions attended the first in a series
of NASA-industry planning sessions. During these two days, 20 NASA
officials outlined the agency's plans for launch vehicle development and
potential projects for manned and unmanned spacecraft. Many of the
invitees returned on 30 August to learn about plans for a circumlunar
manned spacecraft program and three six-month feasibility contracts to
be awarded later. Briefings by the Space Task Group's top officials and
planners, including Gilruth and Piland, emphasized that Apollo would be
earth-orbital and circumlunar and would directly support future moon
landings. Donlan wound up the afternoon with particulars of the Space
Task Group's procurement plan. Any interested company would be invited
to a bidders' conference in two weeks; formal proposals would be
required four weeks later; and the study contracts would be awarded by
mid-November.<a href = "#source40">40</a><p>
Following the same general format, the bidders' briefing at Langley on
13 September included a formal request for proposal, a statement of
work, and some definite guidelines. Essentially, these ground rules were
based upon the assumption that the Saturn booster could launch a lunar
reconnaissance spacecraft that would support three men for two weeks.<p>
<p align=center>
<img src = "images/c016.jpg" width=589 height=401 ALT="Gilruth and aides discuss Apollo">
<p>
<cite>Robert Gilruth (second from left), Director of the Space Task
Group, and chief assistants Charles Donlan (left), Maxime Faget, and
Robert Piland in August 1960 discuss selection of contractors to study
feasibility of a manned circumlunar mission.</cite>
<p>
<hr>
<p>
Piland laid out four mission and vehicle guidelines: manned lunar
reconnaissance; earth-orbital missions in conjunction with a space
laboratory or space station; Saturn booster compatibility (spacecraft
weight not to exceed 6,800 kilograms for lunar missions); and a 14-day
flight time.<p>
Faget stressed return, reentry, and landing: safe recovery from aborts;
ground and water landings (with a capability for avoiding local
hazards); 72-hour postlanding survival period; landing in preplanned
locations; and auxiliary propulsion for maneuvering in space.<p>
Richard S. Johnston presented three demands: "shirt-sleeve"
environment, three-man crew, and radiation protection. He discussed the
need of the crews for a safe environment and for atmospheric control.<p>
Finally, Chilton presented guidelines for onboard command, emphasizing
man's role as an active participant in the mission and its influence on
hardware design, and for communications tracking, discussing the ground
facilities needed for flights beyond earth orbit. Altogether, these
guidelines constituted what the Space Task Group would demand of the
Apollo spacecraft.<a href = "#source41">41</a>
<p>
<hr>
<p>
<a name = "source31"><b>31</b>.</a> President Eisenhower to Glennan, 14 Jan.
1960; Admin., NASA, and Acting Secy. of Defense to the President, draft
memo, "Responsibility and Organization for Certain Space
Activities," 2 Oct. 1959; Glennan and Acting Secy. of Defense
Thomas S. Gates to the President, subj. as above, 21 Oct. 1959 (approved
by Eisenhower 2 Nov. 1959); House Committee on Science and Astronautics,
<cite>Transfer of the Development Operations Division of the Army
Ballistic Missile Agency to the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration: Hearing on H. J. Res. 567</cite>, 86th Cong., 2nd sess.,
3 Feb. 1960.<p>
<a name = "source32"><b>32</b>.</a> ABMA, "A Lunar Exploration Program
Based upon Saturn-Boosted Systems," Rept. DV-TR-2-60, 1 Feb.
1960.<p>
<a name = "source33"><b>33</b>.</a> J. R. Clark, Vought Astronautics, to NASA,
Attn.: Silverstein, "Manned Modular MultiPurpose Space Vehicle
Program - Proposal for," 12 Jan. 1960, with enc., "Manned
Modular Multi-Purpose Space Vehicle"; John D. Bird, interview,
Langley, 20 June 1966.<p>
<a name = "source34"><b>34</b>.</a> John H. Disher, notes on meeting at Langley
attended by Silverstein, Gilruth, Low, and Faget, 15 Feb. 1960 (emphasis
in original).<p>
<a name = "source35"><b>35</b>.</a> Space Task Group, "Guidelines for
Advanced Manned Space Vehicle Program," June 1960, esp. Charles J.
Donlan, "Summary and Scheduling," pp. 47-50; STG, "Slides
for Advanced Vehicle Presentation," April 1960; Disher to Dir.,
Space Flight Prog., "NASA Center Briefings on Advanced Manned Space
Flight Program," 10 May 1960.<p>
<a name = "source36"><b>36</b>.</a> John M. Eggleston, Langley Research Center,
"Inter-NASA Research and Space Development Centers Discussion on
Space Rendezvous, . . . May 16–17, 1960," 25 May 1960.<p>
<a name = "source37"><b>37</b>.</a> John C. Houbolt, interview, Princeton,
N.J., 5 Dec. 1966; idem, "Considerations of the Rendezvous Problems
for Space Vehicles," paper presented at the Society of Automotive
Engineers National Aeronautical meeting, New York, 5–8 April 1960; I. E.
Garrick to Emme, "Item for the historical record of the Apollo
Program," 31 Oct. 1969, with enc., Garrick to Chief, Dynamic Loads
Div., Langley, subj. as above, 7 Oct. 1969; Bird, "A Short History
of the Lunar-Orbit-Rendezvous Plan at the Langley Research Center,"
6 Sept. 1963 (supplemented 5 Feb. 1965 and 17 Feb. 1966).<p>
<a name = "source38"><b>38</b>.</a> Disher memo to Long Range Plan and Budget
File, "Meeting with Dr. Glennan on 7/9/60 to discuss long range
plans for Saturn utilization by OSFP," 11 July 1960; Disher draft,
"Long Range Plan: Manned Space Flight Program," 8 Aug.
1960.<p>
<a name = "source39"><b>39</b>.</a> Disher memo, 11 July 1960; Merle G. Waugh
to Grimwood, 5 Nov. 1963; Lee D. Saegesser, NASA Historical Div.,
informal memo, "Apollo, naming of," 11 June 1969; William D.
McCann, "Dr. Abe Silverstein Certain to Rate in Space Hall of
Fame," <cite>Cleveland Plain Dealer</cite>, 14 July 1969, as cited
in <cite>Congressional Record</cite>, 17 July 1969, p. E6092; Donlan,
interview, Langley, 20 June 1966; "Apollo Program Review, October
20, 1962," p. 1; Silverstein to GSFC, Attn.: Goett, "Official
Name of the Advanced Manned Space Flight Program," 25 July 1960;
Hugh L. Dryden, "NASA Mission and Long-Range Plan," in
<cite>NASA-Industry Program Plans Conference, 28–29 July 1960</cite>
(Washington, 1960), p. 8; Low, "Manned Space Flight," ibid.,
p. 80; Grimwood, "Mercury, Gemini, Apollo: How They Got Their
Names," Manned Spacecraft Center <cite>Roundup</cite>, 3 Oct. 1969;
Felix Guirand, ed., <cite>New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology</cite>,
trans. Richard Aldington and Delano Ames (New York: Hamlyn Pub. Group,
1968). Cf. Berthold Laufer, <cite>The Prehistory of Aviation</cite>
(Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1928); Ernst and Johanna
Lehner, <cite>Lore and Lure of Outer Space</cite> (New York: Tudor,
1964); Nikolai A. Rynin, <cite>Interplanetary Flight and
Communication</cite>, 3 vols., 9 nos. (trans. of <cite>Mezhplanetye
soobshcheniya</cite>, Leningrad, 1928–1932; NASA TT F-640 through TT
F-648, Washington, 1970–1971); and Gertrude and James Jobes, <cite>Outer
Space: Myths, Name Meanings and Calendars</cite> (New York: Scarecrow
Press, 1964).<p>
<a name = "source40"><b>40</b>.</a> Charles Corddry, "NASA Plans 260 Space
Shots in 10 Years; Astronaut in 1961," <cite>Washington
Post</cite>, 29 July 1960; <cite>NASA-Industry Conference, 28–29 July
1960</cite>; Goett, draft memo to Dir., Off. of Space Flight Prog., no
subj., 8 Aug. 1960; STG, "Project Apollo: Invitation to Bid on a
Research and Development Contract for a Feasibility Study of an Advanced
Manned Spacecraft and System," 10 Aug. 1960; Goett memo,
"Goddard - Industry Conference," n.d., with encs.; STG,
"Talks for Advanced Manned Spacecraft Presentation, Goddard
Industry Conference," n.d.; NASA, "Slides for Advanced Manned
Spacecraft Presentation, Goddard Industry Conference," 30 Aug.
1960; NASA, "Presentations for the Industry Conference to Be
Conducted by Goddard Space Flight Center, 30 August 1960," n.d. See
also Marshall Space Flight Center, "NASA-Industry Program Plans
Conference, 27–28 September 1960."<p>
<a name = "source41"><b>41</b>.</a> STG, "Project Apollo: An Advanced
Manned Spacecraft System," draft news release [12 Sept. 1960];
Donlan, "Project Apollo Bidders Briefing," [ca. 13 Sept.
1960]; Glenn F. Bailey, "Request for Proposal No. 302, Feasibility
Study for Project Apollo," 13 Sept. 1960, with att. A and B and
enc., "General Requirements for a Proposal for a Feasibility Study
of an Advanced Manned Spacecraft and System," 12 Sept. 1960.
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