Lec03.hs

{-# LANGUAGE ParallelListComp #-}

{- The extension above will be needed for defining `zip'` and `fibs`
   below. For now, you can safely ignore it, but if you are curious,
   comments of the form `{-# IDENTIFIER arguments #-}` are called
   /pragmas/, and can be used to communicate options to the compiler.
   In this case, we are signalling that we wish to turn on a language
   extension called ParallelListComp: this enables syntax for /parallel/
   list comprehensions (see below). -}

module Lec03 where

{- We are going to redefine some functions from the standard library
   prelude, which is normally imported automatically, and use some
   functions from the list part of the standard library: -}
import Prelude hiding (concat,zip,lookup)
import Data.List.Split (splitOn)
import Data.List (sort)



{-     LECTURE 03 : LIST COMPREHENSIONS


   In this lecture, we will introduce so-called list comprehension as
   a convenient way of defining lists, and see that we can use it as a
   kind of query language for a simple notion of database. Haskell was
   one of the first languages to include list comprehensions, but
   nowadays they can also be found in e.g. Python, Scala and Racket. -}



{-      PART 1: COMPREHENSIONS

   We have already seen that we can construct finite lists simply by
   giving an exhaustive list of their elements: -}

ex1 :: [Int]
ex1 = [2,4,6,8]

{- This matches the mathematical notation for giving a finite set by
   listing all it's elements explicitly:

      {2,4,6,8}

   Note that the traditional notation for sets in mathematics is to
   use curly braces {}, whereas we use square brackets [] for lists in
   Haskell.

   Sometimes it would be inconvenient to list all elements of a set,
   and we may trust the reader to work out which set is meant from an
   easily inferable pattern. For instance, we may write

     {2,4,..,120}

   for the set containing every even number between 2 and 120. Also
   Haskell allows this syntax, in limited cases. If you try evaluating -}

ex2 :: [Int]
ex2 = [2,4..120]

{- in GHCi, you will find that we indeed have defined a list containing
   every even number between 2 and 120:

      GHCi, version 8.0.2: http://www.haskell.org/ghc/  :? for help
      Prelude> :load "Lec04.hs"
      [1 of 1] Compiling Lec04            ( Lec04.hs, interpreted )
      Ok, modules loaded: Lec04.
      *Lec04> ex2
      [2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20,22,24,26,28,30,32,34,36,38,40,42,44,46,48,50,52,54,56,58,60,62,64,66,68,70,72,74,76,78,80,82,84,86,88,90,92,94,96,98,100,102,104,106,108,110,112,114,116,118,120]


   Note that we have to use exactly two dots, and no commas before or
   after the dots. The cleverness of Haskell spotting the pattern is also
   limited: the difference between the second and first element of the
   list will be used as the step length, and new elements are generated
   until we go past the last element:

      *Lec04> [1,5..11]
      [1,5,9]

   We can also make infinite lists by leaving out the upper bound:

      *Lec04> [4..]
      [4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203Interrupted

   Here we had to press Ctrl-C to stop printing out the list
   forever. Computing with such infinite data is possible because
   of /lazy evaluation/, which we will learn more about in Lecture
   19.

   Finally, we come to the comprehensions that the lecture title refers
   to. In mathematics, we can also form sets by describing the properties
   that the elements of the set should satisfy. For instance, we can form
   the set

     { x * 2 | x ∈ {0,1,2,3,4} }

   Forming such sets is called using /set comprehension/, because
   we can /comprehend/ the totality of the set just from the property
   it by definition satisfies. In Haskell, we have again similar
   notation for forming lists, which is called /list comprehension/: -}

ex3 :: [Int]
ex3 = [ x * 2 | x <- [0,1,2,3,4] ]

{- We see that ex3 evaluates to the list of even numbers

     [0,2,4,6,8]

   Here is another example of defining a list by comprehension:
-}

squares :: [Int]
squares = [ x ^ 2 | x <- [0..10] ]

{- Some terminology, and a pronunciation guide:

   * The symbol "|" is pronounced "such that". It separates the
     elements in the output list (on the left) from the properties
     (on the right) that they satisfy, and which define them.

   * The symbol "<-" is pronounced "comes from" or "drawn from". The
     phrase "x <- [0..10]" means that we let x range over the elements
     in the list [0..10]. This is the /generator/ of the comprehension. -}

{- There can be more than one generator, as the following example shows: -}

allpairs :: [(Int,Int)]
allpairs = [ (x, y) | x <- [0..5], y <- [4..6] ]

{- If we evaluate this, we see that we get all pairs (x, y), where x
   ranges from 0 to 5, and y ranges from 4 to 6:

      *Lec04> allpairs
      [(0,4),(0,5),(0,6),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6),(2,4),(2,5),(2,6),(3,4),(3,5),(3,6),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6)]

   Note the order of the pairs: first we set x = 0, and let y range
   through all values between 4 and 6. Next we do x = 1, with y
   again ranging between 4 and 6, and so on. If we change the order
   of the generators -}

allpairsOtherorder :: [(Int,Int)]
allpairsOtherorder = [ (x, y) | y <- [4..6], x <- [0..5] ]

{- we see that we get the same elements as before, but in a different
   order:

      *Lec04> allpairsOtherorder
      [(0,4),(1,4),(2,4),(3,4),(4,4),(5,4),(0,5),(1,5),(2,5),(3,5),(4,5),(5,5),(0,6),(1,6),(2,6),(3,6),(4,6),(5,6)]

   This time we first let y range from 4 to 6 in the "outer loop", with
   x ranging from 0 to 5 for each fixed value of y in the "inner loop".
   If we were dealing with sets, we would consider these two expressions
   the same, but we are not; we are dealing with lists. Lists are equal
   if the have the same elements in the same order, and so, allpairs and
   allpairsOtherorder are /not/ the same. -}

{- Later generators can depend on the values of earlier ones: -}

ordpairs :: [(Int,Int)]
ordpairs = [ (x, y) | x <- [1..3], y <- [x..5] ]

{- Here the second component y will always be <= x, so this way
   we generate ordered pairs:

      *Lec04> ordpairs
      [(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(3,3),(3,4),(3,5)]

   We can use this for a neat way to write the function which
   concatenates a list of lists: -}

concat :: [[a]] -> [a]
concat xss = [ x | xs <- xss, x <- xs]

{- See? For every list xs in the input list xss, and for every
   element x in the list xs, we put x in the output. -}

{- Just like on the left hand side of equations defining functions
   by pattern matching, if a a variable is not used, we do not need
   to name it, but can simply write an underscore _ to signal that we
   do not care about its value: -}

firsts :: [(a,b)] -> [a]
firsts ps = [ x | (x , _) <- ps ]

{- Alternatively, this can be written in the following way without
   using a pattern in the generator: -}

firsts' :: [(a,b)] -> [a]
firsts' ps = [ fst xy | xy <- ps ]

{- Here we first consider all pairs xy from the list ps, and apply
   the function fst : (a, b) -> a from the standard library to
   extract the first component. -}


{- Guards, guards! We can filter out elements we do not want in the
   output list by introducing a /guard/, i.e. a Boolean expression
   that has to evaluate to True for the element to be included. The
   following definition keeps only those integers x that divide n
   exactly -- in other words, the prime factors of n: -}

factors :: Int -> [Int]
factors n = [ x | x <- [1..n], n `mod` x == 0 ]

{- This makes it easy to write a primality test: by definition,
   an integer is prime if it is only divisible by 1 and itself: -}

prime :: Int -> Bool
prime 1 = False
prime n = factors n == [1,n]

{- (We have to treat 1 separately, because 1 should be considered
   a prime, but factors 1 == [1] /= [1,1]. Here one can see that
   one sometimes has to be careful when more or less thinking of
   lists as representations of sets -- because for sets, of course
   {1} == {1,1}.)

   It is now straightforward to use another guard to define an
   infinite list containing exactly all the prime numbers
   (computed in a not very efficient way): -}

primes :: [Int]
primes = [ x | x <- [1..], prime x ]

{- What if we also would like to keep track of the order of the
   prime? Naively, we could try something like this: -}

numberedPrimesWrong :: [(Int,Int)]
numberedPrimesWrong = [ (i, p) | p <- primes , i <- [1..] ]

{- The problem of this attempt is that we will try to range through
   all indices in the infinite list [1..] before considering the
   next prime, which understandably fails to achieve what we want:

      *Lec04> take 10 numberedPrimesWrong
      [(1,1),(2,1),(3,1),(4,1),(5,1),(6,1),(7,1),(8,1),(9,1),(10,1)]

   (The function take from the standard library that returns the n
   first elements of a list, by the way. Useful for inspecting
   infinite lists without having to interrupt the output.)

   What we instead want to do is "zip together" the two lists
   by walking down both of them in lock step. Let us ignore the
   fact that this function is already in the standard library,
   and re-implement it using good old pattern matching: -}

zip :: [a] -> [b] -> [(a,b)]
zip []     _      = []
zip _      []     = []
zip (x:xs) (y:ys) = (x,y):(zip xs ys)

{- If we enable the ParallelListComp LANGUAGE extension (like
   we did at the top of this file), we can also write zip
   using a /parallel list comprehension/: -}

zip' :: [a] -> [b] -> [(a,b)]
zip' xs ys = [ (x, y) | x <- xs | y <- ys]

{- Here the first vertical bar means "such that", but the
   second one means "in parallel with".

   Now it is easy to write the definition of the numbered
   primes that we wanted: -}

numberedPrimesProperly :: [(Int, Int)]
numberedPrimesProperly = zip' [1..] primes

{- The zip function, or parallel list comprehensions, can be
   used to write some mindblowing definitions. Recall the famous
   Fibonacci sequence

     1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,1597,2584,4181,...

   used by the Italian mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci to describe
   the growth of a population of rabbits. (Incidentally, the Indian
   mathematician Virahaṅka studied the Fibonacci sequence 600 years
   before Fibonacci.)

   Here is the definition: -}

fibs :: [Int]
fibs = 1:1:[ x + y | x <- fibs | y <- tail fibs]

{- Again, this works because of lazy evaluation; we provide just
   enough data upfront by the first two entries in the list to produce
   the third entry, which in turn is enough to produce the fourth entry,
   and so on. It can be instructive to step through the reduction of
   fibs with pen and paper, but don't worry if this seems magical at
   this point. -}





{-     PART 2: USING LIST COMPREHENSIONS AS A POOR MAN'S DATABASE

   One can model databases in a simple manner as tables of key-value
   pairs, and use list comprehensions as a quite readable query
   language. Here is the "query" for looking up all values associated
   with a given key in such a table: -}

lookup :: Eq a => a -> [(a,b)] -> [b]
lookup k t = [ b | (a,b) <- t, a == k ]

{- It can be helpful to compare this with the SQL query

     SELECT b
       FROM t
      WHERE a = k -}

{- Here is a slightly bigger example, adapted from Simon Thompson's
   book 'Haskell: The Craft of Functional Programming'. -}

type Person = String
type Book = String
type Fee  = Integer

{- We model a library database, keeping track of who has,
   borrowed which book, and how much they owe in late fees.
   A database is again just a table of tuples of data. -}

type Database = [ (Person, Book, Fee) ]

exampleDB :: Database
exampleDB = [("Alice", "Tintin", 1)
            ,("Anna","Little Women", 2)
            ,("Alice","Asterix", 5)
            ,("Rory","Tintin", 0)
            ]

{- The following "query" finds all books borrowed by a given
   person: -}

books :: Database -> Person -> [Book]
books db per = [ book | (per', book, _) <- db, per == per' ]

{- Again, compare with

     SELECT book
       FROM db
      WHERE per = per'

   As expected:

      *Lec04> books exampleDB "Alice"
      ["Tintin","Asterix"]

   Note that writing -}

booksWrong :: Database -> Person -> [Book]
booksWrong db per = [ book | (per, book, _) <- db ]

{- does not do what we want: it might look like the second use
   of the same variable name per would force them to be equal, but
   in fact this will just introduce a new variable with a the same
   name, "shadowing" the previous variable. (The same thing happens
   if one e.g. defines a function Int -> Int -> Int by a lambda
   abstraction: writing -}

foo :: Int -> Int -> Int
foo  = \ x -> \ x -> x

{- will not force both arguments to be equal, but the second x will
   silently take precedence over the first, as you can see if you
   for example try to evaluate f 1 2. if you start GHCi with the
   commandline option fwarn-name-shadowing (e.g.
   "ghci -fwarn-name-shadowing lectures/Lec04.hs"), GHC will warn
   you when this happens:

      GHCi, version 8.0.2: http://www.haskell.org/ghc/  :? for help
      [1 of 1] Compiling Lec04            ( lectures/Lec04.hs, interpreted )

      lectures/Lec04.hs:352:31: warning: [-Wname-shadowing]
          This binding for ‘per’ shadows the existing binding
           bound at lectures/Lec04.hs:352:15

      lectures/Lec04.hs:362:17: warning: [-Wname-shadowing]
          This binding for ‘x’ shadows the existing binding
            bound at lectures/Lec04.hs:362:10
      Ok, modules loaded: Lec04.
      *Lec04>

   End of digression. -}

{- This query finds all late books, and their borrowers: -}

lateBooks :: Database -> [(Book,Person)]
lateBooks db = [ (book,per) | (per, book, fee) <- db, fee > 0 ]


{-     PART 2.5: JOINING FILES IN A HACKY WAY

   We can use list comprehensions to join two files in a
   quick-and-dirty way in GHCi. In real life, we do this
   to e.g. combine a register file containing your user names
   and email addresses, and another file containing your user
   names and exercise marks, but in order to avoid the Data
   Protection Act, let's look at an example using public open
   data on births and deaths in Glasgow in 2012 (obviously).
   You can download this and many more data files from

      https://data.glasgow.gov.uk/

   The files in question can be found in the git repository
   in the lectures/Lec04-data subdirectory. Looking at the
   files, we see that death.csv contains both "data zones"
   and "intermediate geography names", whereas birth.csv
   contains a "geography code" (matching the data zone from
   the other file) only. As a first step, we would thus like
   to join the files so that we can see the more human-readable
   name also for the death statistics. In GHCi, we can do this
   as follows:

      *Lec04> readFile "Lec04-data/birth.csv"  -- read the file
      "GeographyCode:CS-allbirths:CS-femalebirths:CS-malebirths\nS01003025:5:3:2\nS01003026:17:7:10\nS01003027:17:9:8\nS01003028:6:5:1\nS01003029:14:5:9\n[...]
      *Lec04> lines it -- convert string into list of lines
      ["GeographyCode:CS-allbirths:CS-femalebirths:CS-malebirths","S01003025:5:3:2","S01003026:17:7:10","S01003027:17:9:8","S01003028:6:5:1","S01003029:14:5:9",[...]]
      *Lec04> map (splitOn ":") it -- split up each line
      [["GeographyCode","CS-allbirths","CS-femalebirths","CS-malebirths"],["S01003025","5","3","2"],["S01003026","17","7","10"],["S01003027","17","9","8"],["S01003028","6","5","1"],["S01003029","14","5","9"],[...]]
      *Lec04> let birth = it

   At each stage, "it" refers to the result of the previous
   computation. By doing things in stages, we don't have to
   remember exactly what to do in what order from the very
   beginning. However when we now do the same for the second
   file, we have spotted the pattern:

      *Lec04> readFile "Lec04-data/death.csv"
      "Data Zone:Intermediate Geography Name:CS-alldeaths\nS01003025:Carmunnock South:13\nS01003026:Carmunnock South:13\nS01003027:Darnley East:23\nS01003028:Glenwood South:11\nS01003029:Carmunnock South:12\nS01003030:Glenwood South:6\nS01003031:Glenwood South:0\nS01003032:Glenwood South:7\nS01003033:Glenwood South:24\nS01003034:Darnley East:1\n[...]
      *Lec04> let death = map (splitOn ":") (lines it)

   We can now join the files using a list comprehension:

      *Lec04> let joined = [ (name ++ " " ++ zone, b, d) | [zone, name, d] <- death, [zone', b, _, _] <- birth, zone == zone' ]

   The following function can be used to print the table in more
   readable form. Don't worry to much about the details of it for
   now.
-}

printTable :: [(String,String,String)] -> IO ()
printTable  = mapM_ (\ (n,b,d) -> putStrLn $ n ++ ":" ++
                                  (replicate (51 - length n) ' ') ++
                                  b ++ "    \t" ++ d) . sort

{-

      *Lec04> printTable joined
      "Calton, Galllowgate and Bridgeton" S01003248:      22    13
      "Calton, Galllowgate and Bridgeton" S01003270:      14    8
      "Calton, Galllowgate and Bridgeton" S01003271:      20    11
      "Calton, Galllowgate and Bridgeton" S01003328:      7    	3
      "Calton, Galllowgate and Bridgeton" S01003331:      10    11
      "Calton, Galllowgate and Bridgeton" S01003333:      9    	18
      "Calton, Galllowgate and Bridgeton" S01003335:      6    	5
      "Cranhill, Lightburn and Queenslie Sout" S01003372: 9    	20
      "Cranhill, Lightburn and Queenslie Sout" S01003377: 8    	9
      "Cranhill, Lightburn and Queenslie Sout" S01003383: 6    	16
      "Cranhill, Lightburn and Queenslie Sout" S01003401: 14    5
      "Cranhill, Lightburn and Queenslie Sout" S01003404: 5    	10
      "Cranhill, Lightburn and Queenslie Sout" S01003413: 8    	6
      "Cranhill, Lightburn and Queenslie Sout" S01003421: 11    10
      "Cranhill, Lightburn and Queenslie Sout" S01003428: 25    7
      "Garthamlock, Auchinlea and Gartloch" S01003444:    10    9
      "Garthamlock, Auchinlea and Gartloch" S01003462:    10    6
      "Garthamlock, Auchinlea and Gartloch" S01003476:    29    2
      "Garthamlock, Auchinlea and Gartloch" S01003502:    52    1
      "Garthamlock, Auchinlea and Gartloch" S01003528:    7    	1
      "Roystonhill, Blochairn, and Provanmill" S01003442: 20    11
      "Roystonhill, Blochairn, and Provanmill" S01003443: 15    6
      "Roystonhill, Blochairn, and Provanmill" S01003445: 21    6
      "Roystonhill, Blochairn, and Provanmill" S01003457: 29    12
      "Roystonhill, Blochairn, and Provanmill" S01003458: 18    10
      "Roystonhill, Blochairn, and Provanmill" S01003488: 9    	25
      Anderston S01003382:                                25    13
      Anderston S01003408:                                8    	9
      Anderston S01003423:                                8    	2
      Anderston S01003430:                                8    	1
      Anniesland East S01003612:                          7    	25
      Anniesland East S01003632:                          9    	2
      Anniesland East S01003635:                          1    	8
      Anniesland East S01003661:                          16    4
      Anniesland East S01003675:                          8    	4
      [...]

   We can run further queries, for instance we can see in how
   many areas the population decreased, increased or stayed
   the same in 2012:

      *Lec04> length [ (name ++ " " ++ zone, b, d) | [zone, name, d] <- death, [zone', b, _, _] <- birth, zone == zone', (read b :: Int) < read d ]
      265
      *Lec04> length [ (name ++ " " ++ zone, b, d) | [zone, name, d] <- death, [zone', b, _, _] <- birth, zone == zone', (read b :: Int) > read d ]
      385
      *Lec04> length [ (name ++ " " ++ zone, b, d) | [zone, name, d] <- death, [zone', b, _, _] <- birth, zone == zone', (read b :: Int) == read d ]
      44

   (Here we are using the function read from the Read type class
   to convert a string into an Int.) -}