Import #[repr(transparent)] docs from the Unstable book

… as the feature is ready for stabilization:
rust-lang/rust#43036 (comment)

Author: SimonSapin

src/type-layout.md

@@ -294,6 +294,166 @@ a `packed` type cannot transitively contain another `align`ed type.
 > possible to [safely create unaligned pointers to `packed` fields][27060].
 > Like all ways to create undefined behavior in safe Rust, this is a bug.
 
+### The `transparent` representation
+
+#### Background
+
+It's sometimes useful to add additional type safety by introducing *newtypes*.
+For example, code that handles numeric quantities in different units such as
+millimeters, centimeters, grams, kilograms, etc. may want to use the type system
+to rule out mistakes such as adding millimeters to grams:
+
+```rust
+use std::ops::Add;
+
+struct Millimeters(f64);
+struct Grams(f64);
+
+impl Add<Millimeters> for Millimeters {
+    type Output = Millimeters;
+
+    fn add(self, other: Millimeters) -> Millimeters {
+        Millimeters(self.0 + other.0)
+    }
+}
+
+// Likewise: impl Add<Grams> for Grams {}
+```
+
+Other uses of newtypes include using `PhantomData` to add lifetimes to raw
+pointers or to implement the "phantom types" pattern. See the [PhantomData]
+documentation and [the Nomicon][nomicon-phantom] for more details.
+
+The added type safety is especially useful when interacting with C or other
+languages. However, in those cases we need to ensure the newtypes we add do not
+introduce incompatibilities with the C ABI.
+
+#### Newtypes in FFI
+
+Luckily, `repr(C)` newtypes are laid out just like the type they wrap on all
+platforms which Rust currently supports, and likely on many more. For example,
+consider this C declaration:
+
+```C
+struct Object {
+    double weight; //< in grams
+    double height; //< in millimeters
+    // ...
+}
+
+void frobnicate(struct Object *);
+```
+
+While using this C code from Rust, we could add `repr(C)` to the `Grams` and
+`Millimeters` newtypes introduced above and use them to add some type safety
+while staying compatible with the memory layout of `Object`:
+
+```rust,no_run
+#[repr(C)]
+struct Grams(f64);
+
+#[repr(C)]
+struct Millimeters(f64);
+
+#[repr(C)]
+struct Object {
+    weight: Grams,
+    height: Millimeters,
+    // ...
+}
+
+extern {
+    fn frobnicate(_: *mut Object);
+}
+```
+
+This works even when adding some `PhantomData` fields, because they are
+zero-sized and therefore don't have to affect the memory layout.
+
+However, there's more to the ABI than just memory layout: there's also the
+question of how function call arguments and return values are passed. Many
+common ABI treat a struct containing a single field differently from that field
+itself, at least when the field is a scalar (e.g., integer or float or pointer).
+
+To continue the above example, suppose the C library also exposes a function
+like this:
+
+```C
+double calculate_weight(double height);
+```
+
+Using our newtypes on the Rust side like this will cause an ABI mismatch on many
+platforms:
+
+```rust,ignore
+extern {
+    fn calculate_weight(height: Millimeters) -> Grams;
+}
+```
+
+For example, on x86_64 Linux, Rust will pass the argument in an integer
+register, while the C function expects the argument to be in a floating-point
+register. Likewise, the C function will return the result in a floating-point
+register while Rust will expect it in an integer register.
+
+Note that this problem is not specific to floats: To give another example,
+32-bit x86 linux will pass and return `struct Foo(i32);` on the stack while
+`i32` is placed in registers.
+
+#### Enter `repr(transparent)`
+
+So while `repr(C)` happens to do the right thing with respect to memory layout,
+it's not quite the right tool for newtypes in FFI. Instead of declaring a C
+struct, we need to communicate to the Rust compiler that our newtype is just for
+type safety on the Rust side. This is what `repr(transparent)` does.
+
+The attribute can be applied to a newtype-like structs that contains a single
+field. It indicates that the newtype should be represented exactly like that
+field's type, i.e., the newtype should be ignored for ABI purpopses: not only is
+it laid out the same in memory, it is also passed identically in function calls.
+
+In the above example, the ABI mismatches can be prevented by making the newtypes
+`Grams` and `Millimeters` transparent like this:
+
+```rust
+#[repr(transparent)]
+struct Grams(f64);
+
+#[repr(transparent)]
+struct Millimeters(f64);
+```
+
+In addition to that single field, any number of zero-sized fields are permitted,
+including but not limited to `PhantomData`:
+
+```rust
+use std::marker::PhantomData;
+
+struct Foo { /* ... */ }
+
+#[repr(transparent)]
+struct FooPtrWithLifetime<'a>(*const Foo, PhantomData<&'a Foo>);
+
+#[repr(transparent)]
+struct NumberWithUnit<T, U>(T, PhantomData<U>);
+
+struct CustomZst;
+
+#[repr(transparent)]
+struct PtrWithCustomZst<'a> {
+    ptr: FooPtrWithLifetime<'a>,
+    some_marker: CustomZst,
+}
+```
+
+Transparent structs can be nested: `PtrWithCustomZst` is also represented
+exactly like `*const Foo`.
+
+Because `repr(transparent)` delegates all representation concerns to another
+type, it is incompatible with all other `repr(..)` attributes. It also cannot be
+applied to enums, unions, empty structs, structs whose fields are all
+zero-sized, or structs with *multiple* non-zero-sized fields.
+
 [`align_of_val`]: ../std/mem/fn.align_of_val.html
 [`size_of_val`]: ../std/mem/fn.size_of_val.html
 [`align_of`]: ../std/mem/fn.align_of.html
@@ -304,3 +464,5 @@ a `packed` type cannot transitively contain another `align`ed type.
 [zero-variant enumerations]: items/enumerations.html#zero-variant-enums
 [undefined behavior]: behavior-considered-undefined.html
 [27060]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/issues/27060
+[PhantomData]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/marker/struct.PhantomData.html
+[nomicon-phantom]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/phantom-data.html